2026-10-12T14:38:39Z https://api.figshare.com/v2/oai

oai:figshare.com:article/34017073 2026-09-28T17:39:45Z category_4 category_146 category_7 category_16 category_21 category_272 category_873 category_39 category_734 category_69 portal_5 item_type_3 month_year_09_2026

pone.0358989.t006 - Abubakar Aji (20816715) Hisham Khaled Ben Mahmud (25132771) Abdullah Abduljabbar (20629925) Ibnelwaleed A. Hussein (5535953) Nik Ahmad Nizam Nik Malek (23152837) Victor Damilare Ola (23210932) Mysara Eissa Mohyaldinn (10701874) Biochemistry Space Science Medicine Physiology Biotechnology Environmental Sciences not elsewhere classified Chemical Sciences not elsewhere classified Ecology Biological Sciences not elsewhere classified Inorganic Chemistry vitex doniana </ total mass loss sustainable alternatives arises minimal mass loss leaf extract confirmed average crystallite size 4 × 10 zinc oxide reduced zinc oxide nanoparticles zinc oxide modified 6 kj mol various industrial applications n ‑ hexane 8 ° c 23 ° c evidencing high purity evidencing high crystallinity wax appearance temperature div >- assisted synthesis 9 ° c flow activation energy rheological analysis showed 7 ° c zinc oxide crude oil 6 wt trace n thermogravimetric analysis rheological properties residual c photocatalytic applications 9 %) wax structure wax precipitation viscosity showed thermally stable study aims ray spectroscopy ray diffraction polyphenols responsible organic profile major components inhibition efficiency glycidyl oleate <div>Wax precipitation in crude oil pipelines is a challenge to production. Current inhibitors raise concerns about toxicity and environmental impact. Hence, the need for sustainable alternatives arises. This study aims to explore the Vitex doniana-assisted synthesis, characterization, and application of zinc oxide nanoparticles as crude oil wax inhibitors. The nanomaterial was characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry, X-Ray Diffraction, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy, Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy, and Thermogravimetric Analysis. The application of 0.04 wt% zinc oxide was evaluated based on wax appearance temperature, rheological properties, and wax-inhibition efficiency. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy analysis on the ethanolic Vitex doniana leaf extract confirmed the presence of alcohols, phenolics, carbonyls, aromatics, proteins, and polyphenols responsible for nanoparticle reduction and stabilization of the nanoparticle. Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry of the extracts identified 18 distinct peaks in the organic profile, revealing a mixture of esters, aldehydes, acids, and heterocycles. The dominance of n‑hexane (34.9%) and glycidyl oleate (21.2%) highlights hydrocarbon and ester fractions as major components. X-Ray Diffraction analysis confirmed zinc oxide nanocrystals in a pure hexagonal wurtzite phase (a = 3.243 Å, c = 5.195 Å) with an average crystallite size of 36.1 nm and microstrain of 1.4 × 10 − ⁴, evidencing high crystallinity and suitability for optoelectronic and photocatalytic applications. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy confirmed elemental composition of 64.3 wt% Zn, 20.6 wt% O, 15.1 wt% residual C, and trace N, evidencing high purity. Thermogravimetric Analysis indicated high thermal stability with minimal mass loss (1.308% at ~118.7 °C, 3.340% at ~227.9 °C, and 7.427% at ~391.8 °C; total mass loss < 12.1% up to ~800 °C). Rheological analysis showed a reduction in viscosity of up to 56.2% at 23 °C when crude oil was blended with zinc oxide nanoparticles. The Cross-Polarized Microscopy test showed that zinc oxide modified the wax structure, resulting in clustered morphology, suggesting a cocrystallization mechanism. The Arrhenius plot of viscosity showed that zinc oxide reduced the flow activation energy from 213.6 kJ mol − ¹ to 207.6 kJ mol − ¹, confirming the effectiveness of zinc oxide nanoparticles in improving crude oil flow by disrupting wax-crystal networks. These findings confirm the successful production of high-quality, thermally stable, and surface-functionalized zinc oxide nanoparticles, suitable for various industrial applications, especially waxy crude flow assurance.</div> 2026-09-28T17:39:21Z Dataset Dataset 10.1371/journal.pone.0358989.t006 https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/pone_0358989_t006_-_p_p_/34017073 CC BY 4.0