2026-10-13T18:44:19Z https://api.figshare.com/v2/oai

oai:figshare.com:article/33773767 2026-09-15T07:01:11Z category_39 portal_316 item_type_3 month_year_09_2026

Supplementary file 1_Multiple egg defenses arose early in the history of apple snails preceding carotenoid-bound perivitellins.pdf I. Pavía (24914089) M. Y. Pasquevich (24914092) S. C. Thiengo (24914095) K. P. Barbosa (24914098) P. E. Fernández (24914101) H. Heras (24914104) Ecology apple snails biochemical defenses carotenoid eggs lectin perivitellin fluid <p>Apple snails (Pomacea) lay egg masses above the waterline that are protected by complex biochemical defenses, yet current knowledge is largely derived from invasive and phylogenetically derived clades. Here, we investigate the early evolution of these defenses characterizing the eggs of Pomacea sordida, a representative of Flagellata, the most basal clade of the genus. We analyzed the biochemical composition of eggs and assessed defensive traits previously described in derived lineages. Eggs contained predominantly carbohydrates (~17,4% dw), followed by proteins (~13,9% dw) and low lipid levels, indicating carbohydrate-based embryonic energetics as in most gastropods. Carotenoid content was lowest in P. sordida and increased among more derived species. Unlike all Pomacea species studied, P. sordida eggs lacked the dominant carotenoid-binding perivitellin-1 (PV1), a trait associated with the lowest carotenoid content reported in the genus. Nonetheless, mass spectrometry revealed multiple PV1 subunits, representing the first evidence of a carotenoid-free PV1 in Pomacea. Despite lacking the dominant carotenoid-binding form of PV1, other components of the multilayered defense system were found in P. sordida eggs. Several proteins (22–66 kDa) were resistant to simulated gastrointestinal and fungal digestion, and PVF has strong protease inhibitors of animal, bacterial, and fungal origin (40-87% inhibition). Additionally, lectin-like activity agglutinated erythrocytes and both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. PV2-like neuro-enterotoxin was detected, compatible with the finding that the egg extracts were lethal to mice when injected and, when administered orally, induced marked but reversible morphological alterations in the murine intestine, including reduced absorptive surface, villus edema, and epithelial degeneration. Overall, these results demonstrate that key components of Pomacea egg-defense repertoire are already present in a basal lineage, suggesting that the evolution of the protein-based defense system observed in derived clades arose early in the history of the genus and later diversified into distinct clade-specific defensive strategies.</p> 2026-09-15T07:01:11Z Dataset Dataset 10.3389/fevo.2026.1917664.s001 https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Supplementary_file_1_Multiple_egg_defenses_arose_early_in_the_history_of_apple_snails_preceding_carotenoid-bound_perivitellins_pdf/33773767 CC BY 4.0